Continue to insert hydraulic components to finish the hydraulic diagram.
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The rest of the hydraulic drawing consists of inserting a Pressure Gauge and Check Valve at the left side of the pump and then inserting devices (Cylinder; Restrictors; Filter; Check valve and 2-ways valve) along the top of the drawing.
Note: During insertion, clear the Vertical option in the Insert Component: Hydraulic Symbols dialog box.
Insert components
Previous topic:Creating Pipes
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The construction of a bourdon tube gauge, construction elements are made of brass
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
A manometer could also be referring to a pressuremeasuring instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments.
A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum—which is further divided into two subcategories, high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11 mbar.
[edit]Absolute, gauge and differential pressures - zero reference
Although no pressure is an absolute quantity, everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other ad hoc reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:
The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are only added when clarification is needed. Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures must be absolute. Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings. Moderate vacuum pressures are often ambiguous, as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 30 inHg (typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg = 4 inHg.
Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a mountain (atmospheric air pressure decreases), the (gauge) tire pressure goes up. Some standard values of atmospheric pressure such as 101.325 kPa or 100 kPa have been defined, and some instruments use one of these standard values as a constant zero reference instead of the actual variable ambient air pressure. This impairs the accuracy of these instruments, especially when used at high altitudes.
Use of the atmosphere as reference is usually signified by a (g) after the pressure unit e.g. 30 psi g, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg).
A vented gauge pressure transmitter for example allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure sensing diaphragm, via a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure. Thus a vented gauge reference pressure sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.
A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the negative side of the diaphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges such as hydraulics where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible effect on the accuracy of the reading, so venting is not necessary. This also allows some manufacturers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the burst pressure of the primary pressure sensingdiaphragm is exceeded.
There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference and this is to seal a high vacuum on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is offset so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure.
A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar.
An absolute pressure measurement is one that is referred to absolute vacuum. The best example of an absolute referenced pressure is atmospheric or barometric pressure.
To produce an absolute pressure sensor the manufacturer will seal a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm. If the process pressure connection of an absolute pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric pressure.
[edit]Units
Example reading: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 10−5 bar = 10.197×10−6 at = 9.8692×10−6 atm = 7.5006×10−3 torr = 145.04×10−6 psi
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N·m−2 or kg·m−1·s−2). This special name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units such as N/m². When indicated, the zero reference is stated in parenthesis following the unit, for example 101 kPa (abs). The pound per square inch (psi) is still in widespread use in the US and Canada, notably for cars. A letter is often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement's zero reference; psia for absolute, psig for gauge, psid for differential, although this practice is discouraged by the NIST.[1]
Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid (e.g. inches of water). The most common choices are mercury (Hg) and water; water is nontoxic and readily available, while mercury's density allows for a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer) to measure a given pressure.
Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely. When 'millimetres of mercury' or 'inches of mercury' are quoted today, these units are not based on a physical column of mercury; rather, they have been given precise definitions that can be expressed in terms of SI units. The water-based units usually assume one of the older definitions of the kilogram as the weight of a litre of water.
Although no longer favoured by measurement experts, these manometric units are still encountered in many fields. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury in most of the world, and lung pressures in centimeters of water are still common. Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water, expressed as 'WC' ('Water Column'). Scuba divers often use a manometric rule of thumb: the pressure exerted by ten metres depth of water is approximately equal to one atmosphere. In vacuum systems, the units torr, micrometre of mercury (micron), and inch of mercury (inHg) are most commonly used. Torr and micron usually indicates an absolute pressure, while inHg usually indicates a gauge pressure.
Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using kilopascal (kPa), or atmospheres (atm), except in American meteorology where the hectopascal (hPa) and millibar (mbar) are preferred. In American and Canadian engineering, stress is often measured in kip. Note that stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar. In the cgs system the unit of pressure was the barye (ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm−2. In the mts system, the unit of pressure was the pieze, equal to 1 sthene per square metre.
Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm² or grams-force/cm² (sometimes as kg/cm² and g/mol2 without properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is forbidden in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N).
[edit]Static and dynamic pressure
Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional component of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure. An instrument facing the flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation pressure. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a differential pressure.
While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear.
[edit]Applications[edit]Instruments
Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and disadvantages. Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of magnitude from one instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical tube filled with mercury) manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. The U-Tube was invented by Christian Huygens in 1661.
[edit]Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response.
[edit]Piston
Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring (for example tire-pressure gauges of comparatiively low accuracy) or a solid weight, in which case it is known as a deadweight tester and may be used for calibration of other gauges.
![]() [edit]Liquid columnThe difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure difference.
Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, P = hgρ. Therefore the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving Pa − P0 = hgρ. In other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in blue in the figure to the right) must be balanced (since the liquid is static) and so Pa = P0 + hgρ. If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.[2]
Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm3) and low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences well above the vapour pressure of water, water is commonly used (and 'inches of water' is a common pressure unit). Liquid-column pressure gauges are independent of the type of gas being measured and have a highly linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response. When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing but this can be unnecessary, for example when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few Torr (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa)
A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement. Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used[3]
A McLeod gauge, drained of mercury [edit]McLeod gauge
A McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer until the pressure is a few mmHg. The gas must be well-behaved during its compression (it must not condense, for example). The technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is capable of good accuracy.
0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.[5]
[edit]Aneroid
Aneroid gauges are based on a metallic pressure sensing element which flexes elastically under the effect of a pressure difference across the element. 'Aneroid' means 'without fluid,' and the term originally distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges described above. However, aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a liquid as well as a gas, and they are not the only type of gauge that can operate without fluid. For this reason, they are often called mechanical gauges in modern language. Aneroid gauges are not dependent on the type of gas being measured, unlike thermal and ionization gauges, and are less likely to contaminate the system than hydrostatic gauges. The pressure sensing element may be a Bourdon tube, a diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. The deflection of the pressure sensing element may be read by a linkage connected to a needle, or it may be read by a secondary transducer. The most common secondary transducers in modern vacuum gauges measure a change in capacitance due to the mechanical deflection. Gauges that rely on a change in capacitances are often referred to as Baratron gauges.
[edit]BourdonMembrane-type manometer
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to change to a more circular cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, and thus involving moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable materials, the strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized. Eugene Bourdon patented his gauge in France in 1849, and it was widely adopted because of its superior sensitivity, linearity, and accuracy; Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon's American patent rights in 1852 and became a major manufacturer of gauges. Also in 1849, Bernard Schaeffer in Magdeburg, Germany patented a successful diaphragm (see below) pressure gauge, which together with the Bourdon gauge, revolutionized pressure measurement in industry.[6] But in 1875 after Bourdon's patents expired, his company Schaeffer and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges.
In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing the fluid pressure to be measured. As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an arc, and this motion is converted into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link which is usually adjustable. A small diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified further by the gear ratio. The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage length and initial position, all provide means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for variations in the behaviour of the Bourdon tube itself. Differential pressure can be measured by gauges containing two different Bourdon tubes, with connecting linkages.
Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure, relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to absolute pressure; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion. Some aneroid barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at both ends (but most use diaphragms or capsules, see below). When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing, such as when the gauge is near a reprocating pump, an orfice restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on the gears and provide an average reading; when the whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration, the entire case including the pointer and indicator card can be filled with an oil or glycerin. Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of ±2% of span, and a special high-precision gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full scale.[7]
In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the case. This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:
Indicator side with card and dial Mechanical side with Bourdon tube
[edit]Mechanical detailsMechanical details
Stationary parts:
Moving Parts:
Autocad Drawing Of Pressure Gauge System
[edit]DiaphragmA pile of pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barograph.
A second type of aneroid gauge uses the deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions of different pressure. The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can be determined by using calibration. The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between its two faces. The reference face can be open to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential pressure, or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure. The deformation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used.
For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often used.
Shape:
[edit]Bellows
In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences, or require that an absolute pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows chamber, called an aneroid, which means 'without liquid'. (Early barometers used a column of liquid such as water or the liquid metal mercury suspended by a vacuum.) This bellows configuration is used in aneroid barometers (barometers with an indicating needle and dial card), altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry instruments used in weather balloonradiosondes. These devices use the sealed chamber as a reference pressure and are driven by the external pressure. Other sensitive aircraft instruments such as air speed indicators and rate of climb indicators (variometers) have connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber.
[edit]Electronic pressure sensors
Main article: Pressure sensor
[edit]Thermal conductivity
Generally, as a real gas increases in density -which may indicate an increase in pressure- its ability to conduct heat increases. In this type of gauge, a wire filament is heated by running current through it. A thermocouple or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) can then be used to measure the temperature of the filament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses heat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common variant is the Pirani gauge which uses a single platinum filament as both the heated element and RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10 Torr to 10−3 Torr, but they are sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being measured.
[edit]Two wire
One wire coil is used as a heater, and the other is used to measure nearby temperature due to convection.
[edit]Pirani (one wire)
A Pirani gauge consists of a metal wire open to the pressure being measured. The wire is heated by a current flowing through it and cooled by the gas surrounding it. If the gas pressure is reduced, the cooling effect will decrease, hence the equilibrium temperature of the wire will increase. The resistance of the wire is a function of its temperature: by measuring the voltage across the wire and the current flowing through it, the resistance (and so the gas pressure) can be determined. This type of gauge was invented by Marcello Pirani.
Thermocouple gauges and thermistor gauges work in a similar manner, except a thermocouple or thermistor is used to measure the temperature of the wire.
[edit]Ionization gauge
Ionization gauges are the most sensitive gauges for very low pressures (also referred to as hard or high vacuum). They sense pressure indirectly by measuring the electrical ions produced when the gas is bombarded with electrons. Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases. The calibration of an ion gauge is unstable and dependent on the nature of the gases being measured, which is not always known. They can be calibrated against a McLeod gauge which is much more stable and independent of gas chemistry.
Thermionic emission generate electrons, which collide with gas atoms and generate positive ions. The ions are attracted to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector. The current in the collector is proportional to the rate of ionization, which is a function of the pressure in the system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure. There are several sub-types of ionization gauge.
Most ion gauges come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode, a third type exists which is more sensitive and expensive known as a spinning rotor gauge, but is not discussed here. In the hot cathode version an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam. The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10−3 Torr to 10−10 Torr. The principle behind cold cathode version is the same, except that electrons are produced in the discharge of a high voltage. Cold Cathode gauges are accurate from 10−2Torr to 10−9 Torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction geometry, chemical composition of gases being measured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate measurement.[10]
[edit]Hot cathodeBayard-Alpert hot cathode ionization gauge
A hot cathode ionization gauge is mainly composed of three electrodes acting together as a triode, where the cathode is the filament. The three electrodes are a collector or plate, a filament, and a grid. The collector current is measured in picoamps by an electrometer. The filament voltage to ground is usually at a potential of 30 volts while the grid voltage at 180–210 volts DC, unless there is an optional electron bombardment feature, by heating the grid which may have a high potential of approxim
One fundamental process that all AutoCAD-based plant design systems have to answer is “how do you create custom components.” Today we are going to walk through the process of creating an pressure indicator for AutoCAD Plant 3D.
Because pressure indicators aren’t really a pipe fitting or valve, they are usually one of the most often created specialty types of components.
Here’s an outline of the steps we are going to follow to create our custom component.
1. Create a drawing that has the solids we want to turn into a component.
Autocad Drawing Of Pressure Gauge Kit2. Block the items we want.
3. Add port information using the PLANTPARTCONVERT command.
4. Add our component to a catalog.
5. Add our component to a spec.
When we go to add our component to a catalog, the catalog editor is looking for a drawing file that has the blocks we want to add stored inside of it. So, rather than creating a block and using the WBLOCK command to save it out to an individual file, we are working with the blocks stored in a single file.
As a personal preference, I like to keep copies of my shapes in stages so I can come back later and easily make changes if necessary. You’ll notice the three stages I use in the drawings below.
The drawing Swagelok Model B Pressure Indicators is included in the content download.
Create custom Pressure Indicator (477 downloads)
I am using the data for a Swagelok Model B Pressure Indicator which is available here:
Swagelok Pressure Indicator (722 downloads)
To spare details, I will not go through creating the AutoCAD solids, or blocking.
After you have build your shape and created a block for it, you are ready to run the PLANTPARTCONVERT command so type in PLANTPARTCONVERT at the command line and hit enter.
Select the block to convert.
Choose Add a port:
Select your port location:
Select the port direction:
Select Accept and exit to complete the command.
Repeat the process for all of the sizes in you are making your shape.
I recommend creating all the sizes that a manufacturer sells so that anyone using the catalog knows that those are the only sizes available and doesn’t have to back track your research.
The PLANTPARTCONVERT command creates images in the folder with the drawing, along with an xml file that has some data.
Currently, I haven’t figured out a way to place an inline instrument category in the catalog editor. So until we can get that resolved, I’ll put it under a different category.
Included in the content download is an Empty Catalog, and a PDO Base catalog which contains the results of the next few steps.
In the Catalog editor, click Create new Component.
In the Create New Component category, select Use Custom Geometry, set the Component Category to Miscellaneous, and set the piping component to cap. Set the Short Description to Pressure Indicator, Default end type to THDM, number of ports to 1, and size range from 1/4”-3/8” Imperial and click create.
Fill out the connection port properties- end type = THDM, Pressure Class = 200 psi
Autocad Drawing Of Pressure Gauge Calculator
Fill out the piping component properties: LD = Pressure Indicator 2 1/2” Dial, Manufacturer = Swagelok, Material = Stainless Steel, Short Desc = Pressure Indicator, Iso Symbol Type = INSTRUMENT-DIAL, Iso Symbol Key = IDPL.
Switch to the Sizes Tab.
With the 1/4” size selected on the left, click the Select Model button.
Select our drawing file and select the 1_4_2_5_PI from the block list:
Fill in the properties on the right. Matching pipe OD = .54, Engagement Length = 0.44, LD = 1/4” Male NPT Pressure indicator with 2 1/2” Dial.
You may reference the following pipe sheet for Sizes and ODs:
[Download not found]
You can view a reference sheet with the nipple engagement lengths for Plant 3D here:
[Download not found]
Repeat the process for the 3/8” inch dial.
The block name is 3_8_2_5_PI, matching pipe od = 0.675, LD = 3/8” Male NPT Pressure Indicator with 2 1/2” Dial. Make sure to scroll down in the Connection port properties and set the engagement length (0.5).
Click Save to Catalog. Repeat the process for the 4” dial, and the 6” dial.
Block Names for the 4” dial = 1_4_4_PI, and 1_2_4_PI.
The block name for the 6” dial is 1_2_6_PI.
Although the pressure indicator is in the catalog, we have to add it to our project specs in order to use it in a model. After closing AutoCAD Plant 3D, open the Spec Editor.
If the catalog containing the indicator isn’t open, you’ll have to browse for it on the Catalog drop-down.
After the catalog is opened, you can select the pressure indicators and click Add to Spec.
After items have been added to the spec, the part use priority must be set.
Click the yellow diamond to open the part use priority dialog. Make sure that the actual cap components are always placed first. Check the Mark resolved box for every size to clear the yellow indicator.
Save the changes.
To place the indicator we will need a threaded coupling with female ends. Add one to the spec, save the changes and close the editor.
After having added the indicator to the spec we can place the indicator in our model. I made a 4” line with a 1/2” sock-o-let, 3” long nipple, and a threaded coupling.
Here’s a shot of the ortho drawing elevation:
After some magic in the Iso settings, our production iso looks like the picture below and includes a symbol for the pressure indicator and an entry in the BOM. A future article will talk about how to create your own isometric symbol
That’s it for now, I hope you found this walkthrough very helpful!
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